Antelope Creek Pottery Sherds. Historians believe that the Apache moved down from their native territory in Canada and into North America sometime between and They belong to the southern branch of the Athabascan group, whose languages constitute a large family, with speakers in Alaska, western Canada, and the American Southwest. By the s two groups settled in Texas — the Lipan Apache and the Mescalero.
The Mescalero eventually moved on to present-day New Mexico. The arrival of the Apache would begin to alter the trade and territorial claims among the diverse tribes who had settled the area before them. On October 12, he reached the Bahamas. Six months later, he returned to Spain with gold, cotton, American Indian handicrafts, exotic parrots, and other strange beasts. His tales of the native peoples, land, and resources in North America ignited the era of Spanish colonization.
He set out with four ships and men to find a passage to the Pacific Ocean. There are few records detailing his exploration, although one Spanish document does indicate that he sailed around the coast of Florida, into the Gulf of Mexico, and up a river dotted with palm trees and the villages of native peoples.
Earlier interpretations of his voyage identified this river as the Rio Grande, but later data shows that it was probably the Soto la Marina, located in Mexico. Spanish conquests of the Americas introduced the first enslaved Africans to the region. Garrido was enslaved in the Caribbean as early as He participated in the founding of New Spain as a free man and is recognized as the first person to grow wheat in New Spain.
While in Mexico City, he established a family and continued to serve with Spanish forces. Courtesy Biblioteca Nacional de Espana. His trip seemed doomed from the beginning. Many of his men died, deserted, or were killed by the American Indians whose people and villages the expedition attacked and pillaged.
He kept a detailed diary which has become an invaluable primary source describing the life and peoples of early Texas.
This encounter, which Cabeza de Vaca wrote about in his diary, is the first recorded meeting of Europeans and Texas American Indians. The Karankawa were several bands of coastal people with a shared language and culture who inhabited the Gulf Coast of Texas from Galveston Bay southwestward to Corpus Christi Bay.
Estevanico was an enslaved African born Mustafa Zemmouri around On this expedition he gained great knowledge of the languages spoken by American Indians in the area. In , he was ordered by the Spanish Viceroy to be part of a subsequent expedition.
Painting of Estavanico. Courtesy Granger Historical Images. Conscience-stricken by the abuse of American Indians at the hands of Spanish conquistadors, he crusaded on the native peoples' behalf for over five decades.
In , de las Casas participated in a debate in Oaxaca, Mexico, where he argued for the American Indians' right to be treated as individuals with dignity and against the Spanish efforts to convert native peoples to both the Catholic faith and the Spanish culture. His blistering work in , A Brief Report on the Destruction of the Indians, convinced King Charles V to outlaw the conversion practices, but riots among land holders in New Spain Mexico convinced authorities not to make any changes in their treatment of American Indians.
Finding gold was one objective of Spanish colonization in North America. Various historical accounts describe the soldiers' astonishment at the Texas landscape, including Palo Duro Canyon, and the huge, hump-backed cows buffalo that roamed the grasslands.
Coronado never found any gold in the Panhandle, and the expedition returned to Mexico in Hernando de Soto led an exploration of the Gulf Coast area from until his death in present-day Arkansas in This expedition marked the first European crossing of the Mississippi River. Opinions differ as to the exact route the Moscoso expedition took through Texas, but recent scholarship suggests that they traveled south from East Texas toward present-day Nacogdoches and then into the Hill Country before turning back toward the Mississippi River in Arkansas.
Oil springs and tar pits were known to the Texas Indians. They used the oozings to treat rheumatism and skin diseases. Oil was also seen by the Spanish explorers as early as July , when members of the De Soto expedition saw oil floating in the water near Sabine Pass and used it to caulk their boats. Later, settlers used surface oil for axel grease and for lighting and fuel. Courtesy U. Geological Survey. The ships, including six armed vessels, carried cargo and were headed to various parts of the world including New Spain Mexico and the Indies.
On April 29, , three ships were wrecked in a storm on Padre Island, near present-day Port Mansfield. In the s and s, excavation efforts retrieved thousands of artifacts such as cannons, silver coins, gold bullion, astrolabes, and tools from the wreckage of the San Esteban and the Espiritu Santo.
The third sunken ship, the Santa Maria de Yclar , was destroyed during ship channel construction in the s. The Spanish missionary system was intended to convert American Indians to Christianity and teach them how to live according to Spanish ways. Missionaries often accompanied conquistadors on their explorations in North America. The first missionaries passed through far west Texas in on their way to the pueblos of New Mexico. Though unsuccessful in establishing a colony among the Pueblo people, Spanish conquistador Antonio de Espejo left a valuable account of his encounters with the Jumano people of Texas's Big Bend area in to The Jumano were trading partners of the Spanish for almost two centuries before famine and war sent their population into a steep decline.
They were so grateful to have survived the journey that they held what some believe was the first "thanksgiving" feast in what would become the United States. With this act, the foundation was laid for two centuries of Spanish control of Texas and the American southwest.
Spanish conquistadors first crossed Texas in search of gold in New Mexico. By , the Spanish had established a capital at Santa Fe. Their primary goals were to convert the American Indians to Christianity and to teach them to live according to Spanish culture. The Spanish crown commissioned Franciscan friars to establish missions.
From the pueblos of New Mexico, a few priests began to venture into West Texas. Almost 50 years after their first encounter, the Jumano were revisited by the Spanish in This would mark the beginning of their relations with the Spanish. Some Jumano lived nomadic lifestyles, while others lived in more permanent houses built of reeds or sticks or of masonry, like the pueblos of New Mexico. The Jumano were renowned for their trading and language skills. In time, these expert traders helped establish trade routes as well as diplomatic relationships among American Indians, the Spanish, and the French.
Jumano, Drawing by Frank Weir. Her visions were regarded as religious miracles. She was known as the "Woman in Blue" because of her blue Franciscan clothing. In , they traveled to evangelize the Jumanos. They were unable to supply or defend the outpost, and after six months, they were forced to abandon the mission.
This arrow point is believed to be of Jumano origin. Franciscans traveling through La Junta in performed the first Catholic mass in Texas. In , Franciscans established a mission, but they were expelled after just two years. After the revolt, Pueblo people began trading the horses they had taken control of. The acquisition of horses, and the ability to travel longer distances more easily, would transform the territorial politics between tribes throughout America.
Courtesy Architect of the Capitol. In , the Pueblo people rose up, killed Spanish colonizers, and drove the remaining 2, Spanish out of New Mexico.
The village of El Paso became the base of Spanish operations for the next 12 years. The Tonkawa belonged to the Tonkawan linguistic family that was once composed of a number of small sub-tribes that lived in present-day Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. The word "tonkawa" is a Waco term meaning "they all stay together. In and , the people of La Junta near present-day Presidio petitioned for missionaries to return to their area.
By , these missions were abandoned. The Spanish began making entradas into Texas in the s. They intended to explore and expand into the far reaches of Spanish territory in order to buffer any encroachment from the French. From to , the Spanish led roughly seven expeditions from Mexico to Texas. These early explorers brought cattle, sheep, and goats to the Texas frontier.
By , the Spanish realized the need to defend Texas against the French and blazed a network of trails from Mexico City to Louisiana. By , both missions were abandoned. Circa In Spanish officials in New Mexico documented the presence of numerous Comanches on the northeastern frontier of that province.
As the Comanches moved south, they came into conflict with tribes already living on the South Plains, particularly the Apaches, who had dominated the region before the arrival of the Comanches. The Apaches were forced south by the Comanche and the two became mortal enemies.
Plains Indian Girl with Melon, — By Friedrich Richard Petri. Missionaries occupied the sites sporadically until the end of the Spanish era in Texas. On May 1, , the Spanish established a mission-presidio complex approximately midway between the Rio Grande Valley and the missions of East Texas. This was the founding of the city of San Antonio, the most significant Texas settlement of the Spanish era.
The mission of San Antonio de Valero, later known as the Alamo, was moved to its present location in The Franciscans turned new attention to East Texas beginning in They established a mission along the Neches River and built three additional missions in Nacogdoches County.
In , French troops attacked a nearby Louisiana mission in an event known to history as the Chicken War because it was little more than a raid on a henhouse. Nonetheless, the Spanish withdrew from East Texas for two years.
The Spanish brought cattle to New Spain soon after they began colonization in the s. The first cattle arrived in Texas in the s. By the s, missionaries were operating cattle ranches around San Antonio and Goliad. Ranching in Texas originated near San Antonio and Goliad in the s. As the missions continued to fade into decline, individual ranchers became prominent due to generous land grants received from the Spanish Crown.
One large ranch resulted from the Cavazos land grant, which was a sprawling 4, acres. The East Texas missions were difficult to supply, staff, and defend, and most lasted only a few years. In , three missions were relocated from East Texas to the site of present-day Austin. The following year, the missions were moved further south to San Antonio.
The first reference to the Comanche in present-day Texas comes in , when a small scouting band appeared in San Antonio looking for their enemies, the Lipan Apache. The Comanches were to become the most dominant people in the area. The name "Comanche" comes from an Ute word that means "enemy. They became horse experts and migrated into Texas in order to hunt bison and capture the wild horses that roamed the land.
They eventually claimed vast areas of north, central, and west Texas as part of "Comancheria. Joseph Harrison, Jr. When the enemy Comanche arrived to the area, the Apache agreed to a peace treaty with the Spanish.
The two buried a hatchet in the ground in a ceremony in San Antonio. This led the Spanish to move forward with plans to build missions in Apache territory. Spontoon Tomahawk. Originally from the area of present-day Kansas, a band of Wichitas moved from Oklahoma and settled along the Red River near present-day Nocona, Texas.
They would live there until about , when they gradually returned to present-day Oklahoma. The Wichita called themselves Kitikiti'sh, meaning "raccoon eyes," because the designs of tattoos around the men's eyes resembled the eyes of the raccoon. They lived in villages of dome-shaped grass houses.
They farmed extensive fields of corn, tobacco, and melons along the streams where they made their homes and seasonally left their villages for annual hunts. Wichita paint bag, s. Courtesy The Field Museum, Cat. Once the Spanish formed an alliance with the Apaches, expansion of ranching lands became safer.
Missions tended to have the best land, which put them in direct competition with the ranchers. Conflicts developed, and lawsuits between missions and ranchers became common at this time. The Spanish also hoped to form an alliance with the Apache against the Comanche and allied northern tribes. In March of , over 2, Comanche and allied norther tribes staged a massive attack, burning down the mission and killing all but one of the missionaries. With horses and French weapons, the Wichita were a stronger force than the Spanish.
The Spanish were defeated and forced to retreat. French musket, s. The Spanish negotiated a treaty with the Comanche, who agreed not to make war on missionized Apaches. Continued conflicts with Apaches made it impossible for Comanches to keep their promise.
This ultimately led Spanish officials to advocate for breaking their alliance with the Apache in favor of a Spanish-Comanche alliance aimed at subduing the Apaches. As a result of British colonial expansion from the east, the Alabama and Coushatta Tribes began to migrate from what is now Alabama to the area of Big Thicket in present-day Texas.
By they had moved across the Sabine River into Spanish Texas. One year later, also with the help of a Frenchman, Spain made a treaty at San Antonio with a Comanche band. Other bands, however, continued to raid Spanish settlements. Comanche War Bonnet, — Since they first arrived to the Americas in the early s, European diseases decimated diverse indigenous communities. In a smallpox epidemic killed hundreds of thousands of Europeans and Native peoples in North America.
The virus was carried by people along the trade routes from Mexico City and moved north to Comancheria and farther north to the Shoshone.
The deadly diseases greatly shifted the balance of power between American Indians and Europeans. Detail of Cabello to Croix, reporting smallpox epidemic, This painting by Francisco Clapera depicts a Spanish father and African mother playing with their son in colonial Mexico. This image exemplifies the Casta system established in Spanish territory by the late 16th century. This created the classifications of Mulatos children of Spaniards and Africans and Mestizos children of Spaniards and American Indians.
Under Spanish law, marriage between the races was legal as long as the individuals were Catholic. It was common in the Spanish colonies for people from different racial groups to intermarry and have families. Courtesy Denver Art Museum. According to a newly enacted law, all wild animals and unbranded livestock were the property of the Spanish treasury.
The law also established the "Mustang Fund" which imposed a tax on ranchers for all the branded livestock they rounded up. Hoping to free his people from Spanish control, he formed a loose confederacy of groups that included the Tonkawas, the Lipan Apaches, and some Comanches and Caddos. Courtesy Star of the Republic Museum. Trade between Texas and Louisiana had been prohibited early in the 18th century.
That ban was lifted in Ranching became more profitable as Spanish ranchers were able to drive their cattle along the Old San Antonio Road into the French territory of Louisiana. New Orleans soon became a major new market for ranchers.
Shortly after the trade ban was lifted in , the Spanish colonial government reversed their decision because of the surge of smuggling. Since trade with Louisiana was hugely profitable, however, illicit trade continued.
In a rare moment of unity, ranchers and missionaries became allies in their opposition to Spain's regulation of trade. The Comanche accepted a peace deal with the Spanish, allowing Spaniards to travel through their lands. In exchange, Spain offered to help the Comanche in their war with the Apache.
Peace between the Spanish and Comanche lasted 30 years. The Comanches were to become the dominate force in the area, both in trade and warfare. Known as the San Fernando Memorial, the document argued that unbranded livestock belonged to ranchers since those animals were descended from the ranchers' animals. The government agreed and allowed the ranchers to collect and brand the animals. Due to the San Fernando Memorial ruling, ranchers and missionaries planned a great round-up in La Bahia was the only mission to actually participate.
As many as 7, cattle were captured and branded. This event marked a shift in the balance of power between ranchers and missionaries. By , ranchers were no longer required to pay the Mustang Fund taxes and were given one tax-free year to round up and brand wild livestock.
This change in policy resulted in the increased transportation of cattle to markets in Louisiana and northern Mexico where they were sold for their tallow, hides, and meat. Cattle herds became severely depleted because of continual predator attacks as well as the increased market demands for cattle products.
The cattle industry declined and ranchers turned their money-making efforts toward a new livestock source— wild mustangs. Cherokees were first reported in Texas in , when a small band established a village on the Red River. American expansion had forced them to the west.
They were an agricultural people whose ancestral lands covered much of the southern Appalachian highlands, an area that included parts of Virginia, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. In the summer of that year, a delegation of Cherokees, Pascagoulas, Chickasaws, and Shawnees sought permission from Spanish officials in Nacogdoches to settle members of their tribes in that province.
The request was approved by Spanish authorities, who intended to use the displaced tribes as a buffer against American expansion. Gift of the Thomas Gilcrease Foundation, The Transatlantic Slave Trade involved the forced migration of millions of enslaved African peoples to the Americas throughout the 16th to 19th centuries.
Although it was banned by Britain and the U. The widespread trade of enslaved peoples within the South continued, aided by the self-sustaining population of children born into slavery. Diagram of a slave ship, Courtesy British Library, London, England. In , Moses Austin traveled to San Antonio and negotiated permission to settle Anglo American families in Texas, but he died before his plans could be realized.
Moses' son, Stephen F. Austin, traveled to Texas to renegotiate his father's grant and to scout land near Brazoria. In December , the younger Austin began bringing the settlers to their new home. Courtesy Star of the Republic of Texas Museum. In search of new opportunities in the unsettled territory of Tejas, Moses Austin hoped to bring families to the Mexican province in With the help of Baron de Bastrop, Austin received approval from the Spanish governor to bring settlers into Tejas.
Moses Austin died in , however, and his son, Stephen F. Austin, inherited the land grant for families. Austin settled the land near the Brazos and Colorado in The Mexican territory of Tejas was opened to settlers on the conditions that they become Mexican citizens, learn Spanish and adopt the Catholic faith. Moses Austin, a founder of America's lead industry, obtained government permission to bring colonists to the territory.
He died before the "Texas Venture" began and his son, Stephen, led families on the journey to establish new colonies along the Brazos, Colorado and San Bernard Rivers.
Stephen F. Austin established a settlement of Anglo Americans who found the ranching system in Texas in decline. The ranching knowledge and outstanding roping skills of vaqueros Mexican cowboys helped revive and rebuild the flagging ranching industry.
As the people of Mexico began to feel exploited by Spanish colonialism, a series of revolts began in On September 27, , the Spanish signed a treaty recognizing Mexico's independence. Since Moses Austin had been granted permission by Spain to bring American families to Texas, his son Stephen had to renegotiate the land grant and settlements with the new Mexican government. After two years of waiting to receive a grant, Richard Fields tried to unite diverse tribes in Texas into an alliance and began to encourage other displaced tribes to settle in Texas.
Chief Bowl, Courtesy Jenkins Company. The Mexican government advised Stephen F. Austin that it would not provide resources to administer or defend the fledgling Tejas colonies.
Austin hired ten men to "act as rangers for the common defense" against Indian raids. With that, the legend of the Texas Rangers began. Mexico established rules for settling colonies in During this time, they also joined Coahuila and Texas, forming a unified Mexican state "Coahuila y Tejas. Mexico encouraged Anglo Americans to settle the sparsely-populated Texas territory, both to increase ranching and commerce and to defend against American Indians and aggressive European powers.
On March 24, , the Mexican Congress passed colonization laws that stipulated that settlers practice Christianity and take loyalty oaths to the Mexican and state constitutions in order to become citizens. In , Haden Edwards received a land grant in east Texas for settlers. A dispute for leadership soon broke out in Edwards' colony. He and his allies formed an alliance with the Cherokees and declared the independent republic of Fredonia. Mexican troops restored order, but the incident led Mexico to severely restrict further immigration into Texas from the United States and Europe, a bitter pill for the majority of colonists who had remained peaceable.
Settlers weren't ready to embrace their new Mexican identity upon moving into the country. Largely, they didn't see themselves as Mexican nationals and, in fact, referred to themselves as "Texians.
Because of the lack of allegiance to the nation, Mexican officials feared they would lose control of the state. They began encouraging more migration from Mexicans into the area. Issued by President Vincente R. Guerrero on September 15, , this decree abolished slavery throughout the Republic of Mexico. The news of the decree alarmed Anglo settlers in Texas, who petitioned Guerrero to exempt Texas from the law.
The decree was never put into operation, but it made many Anglo settlers worry that their interests were not protected, planting the seeds of revolution. Decree abolishing slavery in Mexico in Published until , Texas' first newspaper kept settlers informed of news by providing English translations of Mexican government laws and decrees.
Anglo settlers who arrived in Texas in the s brought with them the skills for farming, but many were enticed by cattle ranching instead.
Fearing the possibility of losing control of Texas, Mexico banned further immigration from the United States on April 6, They encouraged immigration from Mexico and European countries, placed more restrictions on slavery, and increased military presence in the region. This initiative angered Texans, who pushed for statehood and self-rule. On April 6, , the Mexican government passed several new laws that were very unpopular with the Anglo American settlers. These laws increased the presence of the Mexican military, implemented new taxes, forbade the settlers from bringing more slaves into Texas, and banned new immigration from the United States.
The grievances that would lead to the Texas Revolution had begun to accumulate. The Mexican army established a garrison at Anahuac to collect tariffs, end smuggling, and enforce the ban on immigration from the United States. Tensions rose to a boil when the fort's commander took in several runaway slaves. The unrest culminated at nearby Velasco when a group of settlers tried to take a cannon from a Mexican fort.
At least ten Texans and five Mexican soldiers died in the fighting. Texans were initially okay with this development because of Santa Anna's support for the Constitution of , which was very similar to the U. However, Santa Anna nullified the Constitution in favor of a more centralized government and was no longer supportive of Texas self-rule.
At the Convention of , 56 Texas delegates drafted a resolution requesting that Mexico roll back many of the changes in Mexican law that took place in Texans wanted Mexico to allow immigration from the U.
Austin, along with Dr. James B. Miller, presented the proposals to Santa Anna. Austin was imprisoned in Mexico City on suspicion of inciting insurrection. Eventually, the Mexican government repealed the Law of , but would not grant statehood to Texas. Amidst the conflict, thousands upon thousands of Americans were immigrating to Texas. Austin after the Battle of Gonzales, when Mexican authorities tried to seize the town's cannon and were met with the now-famous battle cry, "Come and take it!
Santa Anna's determination to quell the rebellion would end with the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, and Texas' independence. Courtesy Daniel Mayer, Creative Commons.
Tension grew between Texas and Mexico. Texans, with a growing influx of American settlers, pushed for separate statehood, resulting in many minor skirmishes with Mexico.
The first notable battle of the Texas Revolution occurred when Texans at Gonzales refused to return a small cannon lent to them by Mexican authorities.
On October 2, Colonel John H. Mexicans retreated, but the battle had just begun. The provisional Texas government passed a resolution officially creating a corps of over 50 rangers. These Rangers engaged in many skirmishes with American Indians and often joined with the Texian Army in fighting against Mexican troops in what became the opening battles of the Texas Revolution.
A large force of mostly Comanches attacked a private fort built by Silas and James Parker near the upper Navasota River.
In the attack Silas and two women were killed. His daughter Cynthia Ann 9 , son John 6 , and three others were taken by the Comanche. Written in , the Constitution of the Republic of Texas protected slavery in the new nation. The General Provisions of the Constitution forbade any slave owner from freeing enslaved people without the consent of Congress and forbade Congress from making any law that restricted the slave trade or emancipated the enslaved.
This solidified the importance of slavery in Texas from its founding. Draft of the Republic of Texas Constitution, The first Texas Congress met at Columbia in the fall of to set the border with Mexico at the Rio Grande, a decision based on an aggressive interpretation of the Louisiana Purchase. The river remained under the control of Mexico, however, as the Mexican government did not recognize Texas' independence. Courtesy Svalbertian, Creative Commons.
On March 1, 59 delegates held the Convention of at Washington-on-the-Brazos. There they drafted the Texas Declaration of Independence and adopted it on March 2. During the Convention, delegates also drafted the Texas Constitution, outlining their plan for the new Republic.
This took place only a month after Santa Anna entered Texas with his army of 6, men. Travis' impassioned letter asking for reinforcements to defend the Alamo. Thirty-two Rangers reached the fort on March 1.
On March 6, all 32 Rangers died. These Rangers are now known in history as the "Immortal Merely declaring independence was a long way from winning the revolution. On March 6, , Santa Anna led an attack on the Alamo. Under the command of William B. Travis and James Bowie, Texas rebels fought a fierce battle against the Mexican army. The defenders of the Alamo were killed in the attack, including famed frontiersman and former U. Congressman David Crockett. News of the defeat spread to Gonzales, where Sam Houston had formed an army.
Feeling unprepared for the advancing army, Houston ordered Gonzales be evacuated and burned. They fought the Mexican Army at the Battle of Coleto, but faced the same fate as the soldiers at the Alamo. They were defeated, and the Santa Anna gave the order to have Fannin's captured army executed. Independence seemed out of reach after the Alamo and Goliad. General Houston drew criticism for not having yet attacked Santa Anna's advancing army;.
Ordered to stop his retreat by ad interim President David G. Burnet, Houston returned west, receiving word that Santa Anna's army was encamped on the west side of the Buffalo Bayou and the San Jacinto River, inside the present-day city limits of Houston. At p. With shouts of "Remember the Alamo! It is widely believed Santa Anna and his soldiers were indulging in an afternoon siesta and therefore were not ready to face the attack, which lasted approximately 18 minutes. Nine Texans were killed, and Mexicans lost their lives.
Santa Anna was captured after the battle. And so began the Republic of Texas. Lamar as vice president. Houston appointed Stephen F. Austin to be Secretary of State. Austin died in office on December 27, , at the age of Greenberry Logan was a free person of color who arrived in Texas in He fought and was injured at the Siege of Bexar December Despite his military service, the Texas Constitution sought to remove all free persons of color unless they obtained permission from Congress to continue living in Texas.
The Texas Legislature passed an act authorizing Rangers to employ the services of "friendly" American Indian tribes as scouts and spies. Hays later credited Flacco with saving his life in more than one battle with the Comanches. The second president of Texas, Mirabeau B.
Lamar, took over a bankrupt and lawless country. Driven by a vision of future greatness, Lamar ruthlessly drove the Cherokee from Texas, waged war with the Comanche, and undertook a disastrous expedition to open a trade route to Santa Fe. He also founded a new capital in Austin and laid the foundation that would one day create schools, colleges, and world-famous universities. Under the second president of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar, the capital was relocated to Austin.
Many in Congress believed that Houston was too far from the original Texas settlements, so the commission surveyed land north of San Antonio between the Trinity and Colorado Rivers. Lamar set up a commission to begin researching potential locations for the new capital.
They ultimately chose the village of Waterloo and changed the name to Austin to honor the legacy of Stephen F. As a result, land sales attracted more speculators than actual settlers. To encourage settlement, the Texas Congress passed a homestead law. President Sam Houston opposed the bill because of rampant fraud and illegal claims on land titles, and kept the General Land Office closed throughout his term.
Courtesy Texas General Land Office. The flag you know today as the official State flag of Texas was adopted in January of as the official flag of the Republic of Texas. Republic of Texas President Mirabeau B. Lamar ordered the expulsion or extermination of all American Indian tribes. In the Battle of the Neches, near present-day Tyler, Cherokees were defeated in their attempt to retain land granted to them by a previous state treaty.
Cherokee Chief Bowles died clutching a sword given to him by his close friend, Sam Houston. In the s, during the Republic of Texas era, individual ranchers organized cattle drives to New Orleans. They also established the Shawnee Trail to Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa, where they could place the cattle on rail cars to be transported to the big markets in New York and Philadelphia. President Lamar ordered the Rangers to attack Comanche villages in his campaign to drive American Indians out of Texas.
At the talks, the Comanches entered with an injured hostage and demanded more money for the remaining hostages. Soon bullets and arrows flew. Six Texans and many Comanche war chiefs, women, and children died.
Engaged in civil war, the Mexican government struggled to maintain power in the region. After several skirmishes against Mexican soldiers, and a failed attempt to form a separate Mexican state, war seemed inevitable for the settlers. Relations between the Mexican government and the Texas settlers deteriorated considerably in as President Santa Anna abandoned the constitution under which the American settlers had agreed to live.
Fearing violence from the settlers, Mexican military officials attempted to retrieve a cannon that had been given to the town of Gonzales for Indian defense. Lesson Plans Video. Estevan F. Austin Signature. A comic On March 1, , a train stops in a tunnel near Salerno, Italy, and more than people on board suffocate and die.
Occurring in the midst of World War II, the details of this incident were not revealed at the time and remain somewhat murky. Train Number left Salerno The Jones Act, the last gasp of the Prohibition, is passed by Congress. Since when the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect, the United States had banned the production, importation and sale of alcoholic beverages.
But the laws were ineffective at actually stopping the On March 1, , in Dearborn, Michigan, the Ford Motor Company celebrates the production of its 1 millionth Mustang, a white convertible.
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